The same two interment rituals would be performed alongside one another again just about a century later, in 113 b.c.e. Douglas Reference Douglas and Douglas1982: 117. ipsilles with 398L, s.v. As illustrated by Livy's description of the first Decius to perform the ritual as he rode out to meet the enemy: aliquanto augustior humano visu, sicut caelo missus (8.9.10). Looking at Roman sacrifice through the insider-outsider lens lets us see more clearly that, for the Romans, sacrifice was both more and less than it is for many scholars writing about it today. frag. Knives would have been used only in conjunction with one or other of these implements. 77 All of this indicates a certain flexibility and elasticity in the ritual of sacrificium that suggests, especially if a similar flexibility could be demonstrated in other ritual forms, a need to moderate the emphasis both ancient and modern on the orthopractic nature of Roman religion. Scholars frequently stress the connection between sacrifice and eating: The idea of food underlies the idea of sacrifice.Footnote Although the remains come from a known sacred area, it should not be assumed that all of them are evidence of sacrificium or other rituals: some may be garbage, material used as fill, or even the remains of animals (like mice) that died while exploring the refuse heap. Van Straten Reference Van Straten1995: 188. According to Pliny, Curius declared under oath that he had appropriated for himself no booty praeter guttum faginum, quo sacrificaret (N.H. 16.185). Sorted by: 6. 14 But while Roman devotio aligns well with our idea of self-sacrifice, it appears that the Romans did not draw a similar connection between devotio and sacrificium. Fest. The ritual is so closely tied to the notion of dining that polluctum could be used for everyday meals (e.g., Plaut., Rud. molo; de Vaan Reference De Vaan2008: 3867 s.v. Ankarloo and Clark Reference Ankarloo and Clark1999: 756; Wilburn Reference Wilburn2012: 8790. Create. Hemina fr. Some rituals, such as the recitation of prayers, were simple. As suggested by Bouma Reference Bouma1996: 1.23841. 286L and 287L, s.v. 57 More rare are images like those on the arches of Trajan at Benevento and of Septimius Severus at Lepcis Magna which show the moment that the axe is swung.Footnote 78 Throughout his corpus Cicero uses a range of technical divinatory terms, including augur, ostentum, and portentum, in rather general ways, even in De Divinatione where one might reasonably expect him to be more precise. Published online by Cambridge University Press: Nor was it secular, capital punishment; the punishment of criminals usually took a more direct and swift form: strangulation, beating, crucifixion, or precipitation (i.e., throwing someone off a cliff).Footnote Bottom line: The Greeks tended towards greater personification of their gods; the Romans tended towards their religion being a series of quid pro quo transactions with 280 BC and 290D; Rom. 14.30; Sil. 86 Instead, their presence should be attributed to the status of those species as valuable and efficacious: the prevalence of dogs, lizards, and beavers in medicinal and magical recipes for potions is an indication of the exceptional value the animals were thought to have, an indication that they were somehow special, and therefore might be worthy of the gods. In Greek and Roman religion, the gods and For example, Ares is the Greek A brief survey of the bone assemblages from sites in west-central Italy is offered by Bouma Reference Bouma1996: 1.22841. 413=Macr., Sat. Modern theorizations of sacrifice focus on animal victims, treating the sacrifice of vegetal substances, if they are considered at all, as an afterthought or simply setting vegetal offerings as a second, lesser ritual, a substitution or a pale imitation.Footnote October equus. I use ritual killing as a blanket term for any rite, including but not limited to sacrifice, that involves the death of a human being. Greek Gods vs Roman Gods. Were these items sprinkled with mola salsa?Footnote Through the insider point of view, we can understand its meaning to the people who experience it. 73 3 66 Sic factum ut Libero patri, repertori vitis, hirci immolarentur, proinde ut capite darent poenas; contra ut Minervae caprini generis nihil immolarent propter oleam, quod eam quam laeserit fieri dicunt sterilem (And so therefore, it has been established by opposing justifications that victims of the caprine sort are brought to the altar of one deity, but they are not sacrificed at the altar of another, since on account of the same hatred, one does not want to see a goat and the other desires to see one perish. Ubiquitous in the scholarship is the assumption that if the gods receive an animal, it is sacrifice, but if the gods receive vegetable produce and other inanimate edibles, those are something different: they are offerings. Pollucere is an old word, appearing mostly in literature of the second century b.c.e.,Footnote For example, the apparent contradiction between Roman abhorrence of ritual killing and the frequency with which Romans performed various forms of it is, to a large extent, explicable once it is recognized that the Romans objected only to the performance (by themselves as much as by others) of sacrificium on human victims. Macr., Sat. WebIn Greek mythology the king of gods is known as Zeus, whereas Romans call the king of gods Jupiter. 24 11213L, s.v. The database is a very useful, but not infallible tool. Our modern idea of sacrifice can, with some refinement and clarification, remain a useful concept for constructing accounts of how and why the Romans dealt with their gods in the ways they didFootnote 16 Modern etymologists disagree on the origin of the term. Furthermore, because there were multiple rituals not just sacrificium through which the Romans could share food and other goods with their gods, we can see that the Romans had a wider range of ritual tools available to them for communicating with the divine. In this section, I make the case that the related and equally widespread notion that all Roman rituals that required the death of an animal were sacrifices obfuscates the variety of rituals that Romans had available to them, effacing some of the fine distinctions Romans made about the ways they approached their gods. Sacrifice was just one of several rites (alongside polluctum and magmentum) that the Romans had available to them that look to us, standing outside their religious system, as if they were all identical or nearly so. 29 Working with the two of them together, we can get a more nuanced understanding of a cultural habit. Yet the problem remains that dogs did not form a regular or significant part of the Romans diet, nor did wild animals of any sort.Footnote There is no evidence, contra Parker Reference Parker2004 and Wildfang Reference Wildfang2006: 589, that the Romans ever perceived the punishment of a Vestal as sacrifice. Art historians have debated whether the choice to encapsulate the entirety of sacrificial experience in a scene of libation rather than a scene of animal slaughter (or vice versa) may tell us something about what was being emphasized as significant about sacrifice at that time or context.Footnote 4 On fourteen occasions between 209 and 92 b.c.e., androgyne infants and children were included among the prodigies reported to the Roman Senate. 3, 13456; Prescendi Reference Prescendi2007: 1225; Rpke Reference Rpke and Gordon2007: 1378. 5 83 It is important to remember, however, that no ancient source articulates any sort of relationship among these rituals. Lucil. WebAnswer (1 of 3): The differences between the heroes of Greco-Roman mythology come down to significant contrasts in the cultural identities of both civilisations. 344L, s.v. 22. 46 This repeated coincidence of ritual performances suggests that the two forms of ritual killingFootnote As has long been recognized, sacrificare and sacrificium are compounds of the phrase sacrum facere (to render sacred), and what is sacrum is anything that belongs to the gods.Footnote This disjuncture between physical remains and written accounts is another reminder of the bias of our ancient authors toward the activities of the rich and toward state ritual. Let me be clear. For a treatment of this methodological issue on a broader scale, see the rather pointed critique in Hopkins Reference Hopkins1978: 1808. The children were drowned by the haruspices, usually in the sea. WebWhile both civilizations left astonishing changes in the world, the developments made by Greek thinkers outdo those of the Aztecs when evaluating their creation of a prosperous government, understanding of literature, and enlightened ideas. Furthermore, although all of these rites were performed on foodstuffs at altars or at least in sanctuaries, there are some critical differences among them and the ways they are discussed by the Romans. Prescendi Reference Prescendi2007: 22441 and, arriving at the same conclusion by a different path, Schultz Reference Schultz2012: 1323. The answer is that human sacrifice, which the Romans are quick to dismiss as something other people do (note that, although Livy is clear that the burial of Gauls and Greeks is a sacrifice, he also says that it was hardly a Roman rite), is closely linked in the Roman mind with cannibalism. ex Fest. I owe many thanks to C. P. Mann, B. Nongbri, and J. N. Dillon for their thoughtful, challenging responses to earlier drafts of this article, and to audiences at Trinity College, Baylor University, and Bryn Mawr College for comments on an oral version of it. Moses, Reference Moses, Brocato and Terrenatoforthcoming. Roman sacrificium is both less and more than the typical etic notion of sacrifice. 24 68 WebRoman sacrificial practices were not functionally different from Greek, although the Roman rite was distinguishable from the Greek and Etruscan. 25 For the difference in Roman attitudes toward human sacrifice and other forms of ritual killing, see Schultz Reference Schultz2010. Even if this is the case, the argument still stands that these passages underscore how essential was consumption to the ritual of sacrificium. mactus; Serv., A. Despite the fact that the Romans buried broken or superfluous gifts to the gods in deposits for hundreds of years, there are to my knowledge only two references to the practice in all of Latin literature.Footnote WebOn the whole, political development in Greece followed a pattern: first the rule of kings, found as early as the period of Mycenaean civilization; then a feudal period, the The catinus is a piece of everyday ware used to serve food that contains a lot of liquid (L. 5.120). } Moses, Reference Moses, Brocato and Terrenatoforthcoming, table 8. 100 Scheid Reference Scheid1998: nn. 22.57.26; Cass. D. 6.9 (which probably draws on Varro) and possibly Paul. 18 th century excavations unearthed a number of sculptures with traces of color, but noted art historians dismissed the findings as anomalies. 54 I presume that Miner's observations apply also to bathroom habits elsewhere in North America and Europe. Upon examination of the Roman evidence, however, it becomes evident that this distinction is an etic one: while we see at least two different rituals, the Romans are clear that they sacrifice a wide range of food substances beyond animal flesh. The ritual seems to be even more flexible than sacrificium in the range of objects on which it could be performed. 18 Horses: Plin., N.H. 28.146; Fest. That we cannot fully recover what were the critical differences among these rites is frustrating, but the situation is certainly not unique in the study of Roman religion. Although Roman writers most frequently do not explicitly identify the object of a sacrifice, when they do, cattle, pigs and sheep are well attested.Footnote 2.10.34, quoting a letter of Varro, and Paul. WebGreeks Romans Lived in small rural communities Polis functioned as the city-states religious center Greek Gods Sense of identity Polis isolated from one another and independent Sanctuaries to share music, religion, poetry, and athletics Classical Greek Orders basic design elements for architecture (sense of order, predictability, and 44 WebDifferences between Greek and Roman sacrifices. The relationship between magmentum and augmentum (Paul. Paul. Created by. Compare Var., R. 2.8.1. Greeks call the queen Hera, whereas Romans queen of gods is Juno. At N.H. 29.578, Pliny tells us that a dog was crucified annually at a particular location in Rome, and that puppies used to be considered to be such pure eating that they were used in place of victims (hostiarum vice) to appease the divine; puppy was still on the menu at banquets for the gods in Pliny's own day. Nacirema is American spelt backwards, and Miner shows to, and interprets for, us our own bathroom habits.Footnote WebAnswer (1 of 13): There are plenty of individual differences between certain deities as other posters have pointed out. 63 and the fact that the word immolatio itself derives from the Indo-European root *melh2 (to crush, to grind): immolatio is cognate with English mill.Footnote 15 for young animals (including foetal and neonatal specimens),Footnote Indeed these two rituals appear at first glance to be identical live interment in underground chambers, though admittedly in different locations within the city and with different victims. 15, The apparent alignment of emic (Roman) and etic (modern) perceptions of the centrality of slaughter to the Roman sacrificial process, however, is not complete. Columella 2.21.4 might also refer to dog sacrifice, but the verb (feceris) leaves it ambiguous as to which ritual was being performed. Vuli, Hrvoje Aul. Although much work in anthropology and other social sciences has debated the relative merits of emic versus etic approaches, I find most useful recent research that has highlighted the value of the dynamic interplay that can develop between them.Footnote 93 73 Also the same poverty has established from the very beginning an empire for the Roman people and, on behalf of this, still today she sacrifices to the immortal gods a little ladle and a dish made of clay. 53 Scheid Reference Scheid2005: 1002; Reference Scheid2012: 84. 22 Cic., Red. To give just a single example, we know that there was originally some technical distinction among the different types of divine signs sent to the Romans by the gods. . The vast majority of the bones come from pigs, sheep, and goats. From this same root also derives the name for the mixture sprinkled on the animal before it was killed, mola salsa.Footnote I also thank the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments, suggestions and objections that have greatly improved this piece. Nor, in broader terms, do I think that internal, or emic, categories should automatically be privileged over external, or etic, ones.Footnote wheat,Footnote 66 but in later texts as well. e.g., Martens Reference Martens2004 and Lentacker, Ervynck and Van Neer Reference Lentacker, Ervynck, Van Neer, Martens and De Boe2004 on a mithraeum at Tienen in Belgium, King Reference King2005 on Roman Britain, and the various contributions to Lepetz and Van Andringa Reference Lepetz and van Andringa2008 on Roman Gaul. At her birth, Athena, the goddess of wisdom, sprang directly from the head of Zeus. 30 Poorer families imitate the rich by applying pottery plaques to their shrine walls.Footnote 60 75 22.57.26, discussed also in Schultz Reference Schultz2012: 1267. 450 Krenkel; Hor., Sat. The Romans worshipped the same goddess, or rather the same ideas embodied in her, under the name of Vesta, which is in reality identical with 36 It is the only one of these terms that does not come to be used outside the realm of the divine. This statement and much of what follows is based on a series of searches in the Brepolis on-line database of Latin literature, Libraries A and B (http://apps.brepolis.net/BrepolisPortal/default.aspx) conducted throughout the summer of 2015. 33 Another animal sometimes sacrificed by the Romans but not regularly eaten by them is the human animal. There are at least two other rituals that the Romans performed that also required the death of a person. ), Dictionnaire tymologique de la langue latine, Interpreting sacrificial ritual in Roman poetry: disciplines and their models, Rituals in Ink: A Conference on Religion and Literary Production in Ancient Rome, La mise mort sacrificielle sur les reliefs romains, La Violence dans les mondes grec et romain, Le sacrifice disparu: les reliefs de boucherie, Sacrifices, march de la viande et pratiques alimentaires dans les cits du monde romain, I reperti ossei animali nell'area archeologica di S. Omobono (19621964), Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia, Animal remains from temples in Roman Britain, The symbolic meaning of the cock: the animal remains from the, Roman Mithraism: the Evidence of the Small Finds, Archologie du sacrifice animal en Gaule romaine, Prodigy and Expiation: A Study in Religion and Politics in Republican Rome, Production and Consumption of Animals in Roman Italy, Re-thinking sacred rubbish: the ritual deposits of the temple of Mithras at Tienen (Belgium), Beyond Sacred Violence: A Comparative Study of Sacrifice, The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion: A Reader, Views from inside and outside: integrating emic and etic insights about culture and justice judgment, Ricerche nell'area dei templi di Fortuna e Mater Matuta, Revue de philologie, de littrature et d'histoire anciennes, Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era, Why were the Vestals virgins? Greek governments varied from kings and oligarchs to the totalitarian, racist, warrior culture of Sparta and the direct democracy of Athens, whereas Roman kings gave Chr. The more powerful individuals in the society have several shrines in their houses and, in fact, the opulence of a house is often referred to in terms of the number of such ritual centers it possesses. "useRatesEcommerce": false 95 Dear Mr. Chang, Aside from the obvious differences in language (one culture speaks as much Latin as the Vatican, while the other is all Greek to me), the Romans art largely imitated that of the Greeks. Mactare is another ritual performed on animals (referred to as hostiae and victimae) at an altar, but also on porridge (Nonius 539L). 47 Oliveira, Cludia to the fourth century c.e. Other forms of ritual killing do not receive the same sort of negative judgement by Roman authors, and one form, devotio, even has strongly positive associations. Another possible interpretation of the disappearance of some rituals from Latin literature is that the Romans no longer thought of them as distinct from one another, preferring to treat them all as sacrificium. Marcos, Bruno e.g., Faraone and Naiden Reference Faraone and Naiden2012: 4; Prescendi Reference Prescendi2007: 36 and 1089. WebComparative mythology is the comparison of myths from different cultures in an attempt to identify shared themes and characteristics. 7 Modern scholars sometimes group all of these rites under the rubric sacrifice.Footnote 1034 seems to draw an equivalence between sacrificare and mactare (cf. hasContentIssue true, Copyright The Author(s) 2016. 2019. for this article. 74 49 There is a small amount of evidence for a form of auspicium performed with beans: Fest. Gel. Tagliacozzo Reference Tagliacozzo1989: 66. Goats: Var., R. 1.2.19; Liv. 35 91 When the Romans sacrificed plant matter to the gods, it appears to be because that is what it was appropriate to do in the specific circumstance. See Rosenblitt Reference Rosenblitt2011 for the connection between these two passages. The most recent and most comprehensive analysis of the material details the criteria applied to the osteoarchaeological evidence for determining what is likely to be evidence for sacrifice.Footnote 283F284C; Liv., Per. ex Fest. At the centre of the whole complex was the immolatio, during which the animal was sprinkled with mola salsa (a mixture of spelt and salt), the flat of a knife was run along its back, and then it was slaughtered. See, for example, Feeney Reference Feeney, Barchiesi, Rpke and Stephens2004, an excellent discussion of the application of theoretical models of sacrifice to the poetry of Vergil and Ovid. On the Latin terminology for living sacrificial victims, see Prescendi Reference Prescendi2009. 23, The importance of sprinkling mola salsa might explain a pattern in Roman public artwork from the republican through the high imperial periods. This study argues, however, that the apparent continuity is illusory in some important ways and that we have lost sight of some fine distinctions that the Romans made among the rituals they performed. Var., L 5.122. Yet, part of the work of a Roman historian is to try to understand how the Romans understood their world, to be aware of anachronism in our accounts thereof, and to keep in mind that the sources never truly speak for themselves. and Paul. (ed.) 101. Cf. Dogs, and puppies in particular, were thought to have some medicinal and magical properties: Pliny reports that some people thought the ashes of a dog's cranium, when consumed with a beverage, could cure abdominal pain (N.H. 30.53) and, when mixed with honey wine in particular, could cure jaundice (N.H. 30.93). 1.3.90 and 1.6.115; Juv. 21 The burial of Gauls and Greeks was a sacrifice, but one that Romans ought not to have performed. 17 that contain scenes of ritual slaughter where the implements can be clearly discerned.Footnote Furthermore, it seems reasonable to conclude that the miniature clay cows, birds, and other animals that are also commonly found in votive collections were also substitutes for live sacrificial victims.Footnote 5401L. Test. Test. Reed, Kelly Macr., Sat. The fundamental belief underlying the whole system appears to be that the human body is ugly and that its natural tendency is to debility and disease. He stresses the traditional nature of the burial of the one Vestal with the phrase as is the custom (uti mos est) and describes her death in neutral terms (necare).Footnote 31. The most common form of ritual killing among the Romans was the disposal of hermaphroditic children.Footnote and the second century c.e. Furthermore, there is reason to think that the crucial moment, or perhaps the first crucial moment, in the whole ritual process of sacrificium for the Romans was the sprinkling of mola salsa onto the victim, whereas several important modern theorizations of sacrifice place the greatest emphasis on, and see the essential meaning of sacrifice in, the moment of slaughter. Another example of the bias of our sources away from rituals performed by the lower classes is the dearth of references to a particular type of item found in votive deposits: anatomical votives, fictile representations of parts of the human body offered to the gods as requests for cures for physical ailments. 56 77L, s.v. and Paul. The S. Omobono material shows a definite preference for certain species (sheep, goats, pigs),Footnote For a more extended analysis of the distinction between the punishment of unchaste Vestals and, on the one hand, sacrifice and, on the other, secular capital punishment, see Schultz Reference Schultz2012. Resp. We also find that the gods were open to receiving sacrifices of vegetables, grains, liquids, and, when those were not available, miniature versions of the serveware that would normally have contained them. 3 There is no question that the live interment of the Gauls and Greeks was a sacrifice: Livy identifies it as one of the sacrifices not part of the usual practice ordered by the Sibylline Books (sacrificia extraordinaria). Neither of the acts that Pliny mentions is explicitly identified as sacrificium, or as any other rite in particular. 2 Concise surveys of the major modern theories of sacrifice in the ancient world can be found in Knust and Vrhelyi Reference Knust and Vrhelyi2011: 418, Lincoln Reference Lincoln2012, and Graf Reference Graf2012. One relatively well documented example is the collection of bones dating to the seventh and sixth centuries b.c.e. 55, The link between consumption and sacrifice is also reinforced by a second category of sacrificial items that Romans did not eat: animals, including human animals, that were not regularly included in the Roman diet. 2.47.10 (M)=2.44.10 McGushin. 93L, s.v. As in other cultures, Roman sacrifice was not a single act, but instead comprised a series of actions that gain importance in relationship to each other.Footnote The two texts are nearly identical and perhaps go back to the original lex sacra of the altar of Diana on the Aventine hill in Rome, to which the inscriptions explicitly appeal. Scholars are quick to identify all of them as forms of sacrifice, which may well be the case. uncovered in votive deposits throughout Italy. On three occasions during the Republic (228,Footnote It is important to note that there is no indication that these vegetal offerings were thought to be substitutions for what would have been, in better circumstances, animal victims.Footnote In this way, the native, or emic, Roman view of sacrifice is more expansive than ours. See, for example, citations from Pomponius and Afranius in Non. Most houses are of wattle and daub construction, but the shrine rooms of the more wealthy are walled with stone. Another major difference between Greek gods and Roman gods is in the physical appearance of the deities. Home. mactus. 36 It is important to note, however, that we cannot determine conclusively from the extant sources what relationship, if any, existed among them in the Roman mind. 49 ), the Romans followed instructions from the Sibylline Books to bury alive pairs of Gauls and Greeks, one man and one woman of each, in the Forum Boarium. 56 87 These offerings, ubiquitous in Roman Italy through to the end of the Republic, are mentioned at most twice in extant Latin literature.Footnote WebWhile both civilizations left astonishing changes in the world, the developments made by Greek thinkers outdo those of the Aztecs when evaluating their creation of a prosperous Ov., F. 4.90142 with Fest. Despite the fact that the S. Omobono assemblage dates to several centuries before the Classical period, the range of faunal remains from the site are primarily what one would expect from a sanctuary based on what we know from literary texts. Although the focus of this investigation is the recovery of some details of the Romans idea of sacrificium, I do not mean to imply that their concept is the right one and that the modern idea is wrong or completely inapplicable to the Roman context. 62 62. Terms in this set (7) Which one The Romans performed at least four forms of ritual killing, only one of which was sacrifice. 344L and 345L, s.v. The equation of sacrifice with the offering of an animal is not completely divorced from the ancient sources. In contrast, as I have pointed out, Livy uses the language of sacrifice to describe the second interment and in the next breath expressly distances Roman tradition from it, calling it a rite scarcely Roman (minime Romano sacro). Liv. This should prompt researchers, myself included, to greater caution when presenting a native in our case, Roman point of view and to greater clarity about whether the concept under discussion at any given moment is really the Romans or ours, or is shared by both groups. The objectivity of the outside observer can also facilitate cross-cultural comparison. 21.5). and for front limbs.Footnote Miner Reference Miner1956: 503. WebIt housed an altar for animal sacrifice and was said to constantly burn incense. Birds: Suet., Calig. 32 8.10.)). See also Scheid Reference Scheid2012: 901. 9 McClymond treats sacrificial events as clusters of different types of activities, including prayer, killing, cooking, and consumption, which are not in and of themselves sacrificial (they are frequently performed in other contexts), but which become sacrificial in the aggregate (McClymond Reference McClymond2008: 2534). Match. Finally, it appears that some of these rites ceased to be performed by some point in the imperial period and that sacrificium continued for centuries. As in the Greek world, sacrifice was the central ritual of religion. 46 45.16.6. sacrima. It was used by Cicero in the opening of his speech Post Reditum and by the figure of Cotta, consul of 75 b.c.e., in a fragment of Sallust's Historiae to present themselves as victims for the greater good.Footnote Marcellus, de Medicamentis 8.50; Palmer Reference Palmer and Hall1996: 234. WebStudy with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which temples were Greek and which were Roman?, When was the Temple of Zeus at Olympia built?, What the features of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia? The biggest difference that I'm aware of is that the Classical Greek religion was much more the religion of myths that we all know, while the Class 88. 40 Hemina fr. The main god and goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. To my knowledge, the sole exception is a phrase preserved twice in the Commentarii Fratrum Arvalium (Scheid Reference Scheid1998: nn.
Why Did Raphael Rowe Leave World's Toughest Prisons, Disgaea 5 Fun Weapons, Funny Alabama Football Gifs, Blueprints Level 3 Lesson 4 Industrial Prints, Brown And Brown Death Video, Articles D